US Space Program
Foundations of US Space Policy
In the United States, remote sensing policy is determined by the government, which in recent years has taken steps to increase the satellite constellation of dual-use information systems to enhance and protect its security and to strengthen the US's leading position as a global leader in the development and use of remote sensing systems (RSS). The main efforts of state regulation in the US RSS sector are aimed at promoting the development of market mechanisms.
The fundamental document in this area is the directive on space policy regarding the use of commercial RSS, approved by the US President on April 25, 2003. This document replaced Presidential Directive PDD-23 of March 9, 1994, which outlined the foundations of US policy regarding foreign customers' access to the resources of American RSS [3].
The new policy is aimed at further strengthening the world's leading position of American companies and covers the following areas of activity:
- licensing activities and operations of RSS;
- using RSS resources for the interests of US defense, intelligence, and other government agencies;
- access of foreign customers (governmental and commercial) to RSS resources, export of technologies and materials for RSS;
- intergovernmental cooperation in military and commercial space imaging.
The main goal of the policy is to enhance and protect US national security and interests on the international stage by strengthening leading positions in RSS and developing national industry. The policy's objectives are to stimulate economic growth, protect the environment, and strengthen scientific and technological superiority.
Remote Sensing Materials
The new directive also addresses the commercialization of remote sensing systems. According to experts, without commercialization, RSS technologies will not only fail to develop but will also set the US (and any other country) back from leading positions in the world. The US government believes that space imaging materials become demanded products for government agencies' needs, obtained on a commercial basis from RSS. One of the main goals is to free the National Intelligence Community from a large volume of requests for such products from various US agencies. Another important task of the new space policy is the commercialization of RSS to further strengthen the leading position of American companies - operators of space remote sensing systems.
The directive outlines the licensing procedure for RSS activities in the interests of the Department of Defense, intelligence, and other agencies such as the State Department, and sets certain restrictions for foreign customers of RSS products and the export of technologies and materials. It also establishes the basis for intergovernmental cooperation in military and commercial imaging.
The steps taken by the US government ensure the enhancement and protection of national security, as well as the creation of favorable conditions for the country on the international stage by strengthening America's leading position in RSS and developing its own industry. To this end, the government has granted extensive powers to the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA), which is part of the US intelligence community. NIMA is functionally responsible for collecting and distributing imagery obtained from RSS among government agencies and foreign consumers, which is only done with the approval of the US State Department. The Department of Commerce and NASA are tasked with coordinating requests for RSS products in the commercial sector. The same imagery is to be used by various agencies interested in the same areas of imaging.
The Department of Commerce, Department of the Interior, and NASA define civilian needs in the RSS field. They also allocate appropriate funds for project implementation. NIMA assists in implementing civilian government RSS programs. This organization is also the lead in developing action plans for the new space policy, which involves the Secretary of Defense, Secretary of Commerce, State Department, and the Director of Central Intelligence (who is also the CIA Director).
These issues are addressed legislatively, through the discussion and adoption of laws. Government RSS systems, such as Landsat, Terra, Aqua, will be used for defense and intelligence tasks when obtaining information via commercial RSS systems is not economically feasible. NIMA creates conditions for the US industry to gain competitive advantages. The US government guarantees support for the RSS market development and retains the right to restrict the sale of imagery to certain countries to maintain US leadership in RSS. The directive stipulates that the CIA and the Department of Defense should monitor the development of RSS in other countries to ensure that US industry does not lose its leading position in the global RSS market.
The US government does not prohibit its Department of Defense from purchasing any imagery materials from commercial firms. The direct benefit is clear: no need to launch a new or retarget an existing RSS satellite to the area of interest, thus achieving high operational efficiency. This is eagerly done by the US Department of Defense, thereby promoting the development of commercial RSS structures [3].
Key ideas of the new space policy:
- It is legislatively established that US RSS resources will be used to the maximum extent for defense, intelligence, internal and international security, and for civilian users;
- Government RSS systems (e.g., Landsat, Terra, Aqua) will be oriented toward tasks that cannot be effectively addressed by RSS operators due to economic factors or national security interests;
- Establishment and development of long-term cooperation between government agencies and the US aerospace industry, ensuring an efficient licensing mechanism for RSS operations and export of RSS technologies and materials;
- Creating conditions for the US industry to gain competitive advantages in providing RSS services to foreign governmental and commercial customers.
The new RSS policy is the first step by the Bush administration to review US space policy. It is evident that the document's adoption was actively lobbied by aerospace corporations, who welcomed the new rules. The previous policy, defined by PDD-23, contributed to the emergence and development of high-resolution commercial means. The new document guarantees government support for RSS market development and stipulates that new commercial projects will be developed considering the needs of civilian and defense agencies.
Another important aspect is that the state becomes an "international promoter" of commercial RSS information. Previously, the structure of imagery information sales by commercial operators was dominated by defense and other government customers. However, the scale of purchases was relatively low, and the RSS materials market developed slowly. In recent years, with the advent of high-resolution RSS (0.5-1 m), the situation has changed. High and medium resolution commercial systems are now considered an essential complement to military space systems, enhancing the efficiency of orders and overall system productivity, delineating functions, and expanding the circle of imagery information users.
Over the past 5-7 years, commercial RSS imaging has become a crucial source of up-to-date and high-quality imagery for several reasons:
- The resources of military reconnaissance systems are limited due to the expanding range of tasks and the number of users, reducing the operational efficiency of survey tasks;Position on the strategic intentions of the US national geospatial intelligence system
In January 2004, the American National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) published a conceptual document entitled "Position on the Strategic Intentions of the National Geospatial Intelligence System."
The document was developed under the leadership of NGA Director Lieutenant General USAF (Ret.) James Clapper, whose tenure was associated with revolutionary changes in geospatial data information. The NGA Director identified key threats that the agency aims to counter: international terrorism, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and regional instability threatening US interests. In technological terms, according to the NGA Director, the agency must be prepared for explosive growth in the volume, speed, and types of information [5], [7].
The document outlines four main strategic goals of the geospatial intelligence system, summarized as follows.
The first goal concerns the core task of information provision, requiring the creation of an integrated and interconnected environment for analysis and decision-making focused on uncovering the capabilities and intentions of targeted entities.
The second goal concerns the development of NGA's interactions with strategic partners and ensuring leadership in the national geospatial intelligence system. It is intended to establish common standards and metadata, expand partnerships and strategic alliances with national agencies, military commands and services, industrial corporations, and foreign allies.
The third goal addresses personnel policies, issues of recruitment, and professional development of personnel with the knowledge and skills necessary to counter current and future threats. It is necessary to implement standards of professional competence and innovative methods of retraining personnel to enhance the level of analytical processing of materials.
Finally, the fourth goal defines the approach to the development of advanced geospatial intelligence technologies. Tasks include the integration of various sensors and data collection platforms, transition to digital network architecture for rapid data collection and dynamic data exchange, and ensuring a dynamically expanding infrastructure of the geospatial intelligence system to meet the growing volumes, speeds, and data formats.
Figure 1 - Satellite image - raster image
Figure 2 - Identification of targets and objects
Figure 3 - Real-time operational situation display
The primary task of the NGA, one of the 15 organizations comprising the US Intelligence Community, is to provide geospatial intelligence data in the interests of national security. In its activities, the NGA occupies an intermediate position between the developer and operator of space systems—the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), on the one hand, and the consumers—military commands and services of the country's special services, on the other. Therefore, for a long time, the effectiveness of the NGA's work depended on the activities of the NRO, which was a monopoly in the field of creating new reconnaissance satellite systems but did not perform its functions in the best way [6].
Under the leadership of NGA Director Clapper, large-scale purchases of high-resolution satellite images from commercial companies are associated with the agency's activities. This practice allows simultaneously reducing the load on the so-called "national technical means" (military satellites) and supporting the development of the American GEOINT industry. Thus, the NGA disrupted the NRO's management monopoly on reconnaissance satellite orders. How successful this practice will be will become clear in the near future: launches of new super-satellites are expected in 2007.
In the future, the NGA plans to expand the scale of information purchases from commercial operators. According to General Clapper, "commercial images have proven their information utility and value" in practice. The commercial GEOINT industry serves as a kind of insurance policy for secret satellites operated by the NRO, especially given the problems encountered in developing new Future Imagery Architecture (FIA) reconnaissance satellites. The NGA Director stated that commercial satellites will become a fundamental component of the FIA system architecture.
Space military reconnaissance program
At the end of 2005, the American non-governmental organization Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a database of active spacecraft compiled from open publications. The UCS database includes over 800 active satellites. At that time, there were 413 American satellites of various purposes in low Earth orbits. All other countries in the world together had only 382 satellites. Russia had 87 still functioning orbital vehicles, and China had 34. The research summarized information about active vehicles in 21 parameters—from orbits to their intended purposes. The study included 40 secret American reconnaissance satellites of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), including those known as Lacrosse-4, Mercury, Trumpet, and Orion. Even those whose names are unknown are listed [7], [8].
In February, the US Department of Defense published a report on the prospects for the next 4 years. In the field of space technology, the US defense department confirmed its intention to maintain a technological advantage over all countries by at least one technological generation. Plans include developing rapid access to space, ensuring high survivability of space systems by improving space control means and spacecraft protection.
As a result, the US has created the largest group of reconnaissance satellites in orbit in its history. In January 2006, amateur astronomers united in an international network, based on optical observations, established that the US radar reconnaissance satellite Lacrosse-2 made a slight correction to its orbit. This curious fact means that the world's longest-serving low-orbit reconnaissance satellite, launched in 1991, showed "signs of life" [7].
For decades, the US IMINT reconnaissance system has included two types of satellites: optical telescopes KeyHole (or KH - "keyhole", referred to as "Improved Crystal" KH-11 or KH-12 in the press) and radar reconnaissance Lacrosse. According to press reports, the spatial resolution of optical equipment is about 10 cm, and radar equipment is less than 1m. In addition, according to open publications, a stealth satellite with low radar and optical visibility, Misty-2, was launched into orbit in 1999 and can capture images of objects without being noticed by space surveillance stations of other countries. The first Misty-1 satellite was launched in 1990 and is likely no longer in use.
With clarifications made by optical observers and publications in the magazine "Space News," the number of the US IMINT reconnaissance group reached a record size of 9 satellites, including 4 KeyHole, 4 Lacrosse, and one secret stealth satellite Misty-2. All listed secret satellites were observed by astronomers except Misty-2, which was lost to observers immediately after launch. The number of Earth observation IMINT satellites of the US increased to a record level in 2005 due to two successful launches of KeyHole and Lacrosse-5 satellites. No old spy satellite has been deorbited, indicating their residual operational capability.
Of course, not all satellite capabilities are equivalent, but the expanded IMINT group provides high redundancy, high frequency of viewing, and allows for increased volume of space information collected on objects worldwide. In addition to data obtained from military satellites, the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency (NGA) spends almost $100 million annually on purchasing high-resolution satellite images from commercial satellites Ikonos-2, QuickBird-2, and OrbView-3 operated by GeoEye and DigitalGlobe operators. The group is complemented by military experimental satellites STP-R1, MTI, and SINDRY with Earth observation equipment. Thus, in addition to the main IMINT group, 5-6 satellites collect geospatial information.
Maintaining a 9-satellite IMINT group in orbit requires not only significant financial expenses but also corresponding infrastructure for relay, reception, processing, and archiving of a huge volume of spatial data. It is not excluded that such an expansion of the IMINT space segment is associated with preparation for the launches of the promising multisatellite FIA (Future Imaging Architecture) reconnaissance system. Despite significant delays in the development of new FIA satellites (initially planned launches were supposed to start in 2005), the ground information processing segment was created and put into operation in 2003 as part of the Mission Integration and Development (MIND) program. MIND system uses internet protocols HTML, CGI, TCP/IP, JAVA 1, and commercial equipment Cisco and NT for data exchange.
Under the GeoScout project, the NGA creates ground infrastructure for joint ordering, processing, automated analysis, and preparation of various geospatial products based on data from national reconnaissance satellites, commercial observation vehicles, and airborne platforms collecting visual information. The main areas of application for commercial data include the development of high-precision detailed maps and digital terrain models, determination of coordinates of stationary and low-mobility targets, control of results of missile-bomb strikes. The accuracy of the coordinate attachment of stationary objects by commercial images is several meters, which is sufficient for the use of high-precision weapons with satellite navigation equipment GPS (JDAM and JSSOW families of strike weapons). Tactical guided weapons with combined GPS/IMU receiver can provide the aiming accuracy of 2-3 m, which is the value of combat characteristics of new American combat aircraft of F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II.
The American geospatial intelligence system, based on the use of global information sources, ensures the combat capabilities of new electronic and information warfare systems. Thus, the increase in the number of reconnaissance satellites is associated with the strategic interests of Washington to maintain the lead in the arms race in the field of satellite reconnaissance and the development of new reconnaissance equipment and electronic systems of information warfare in orbit. One of the 7 tactical guidance satellites of the NAVSTAR / GPS military navigation system (with frequency and positional data transmission) will allow determining the current coordinates of air, sea, and ground targets on the principle of "dual use." At present, American reconnaissance satellites do not use information on the targets of a 3rd party and are not authorized to determine their precise coordinates. NAVSTAR / GPS military navigators are used for direct guidance of the low-precision JDAM and JSSOW air bombs (smart bombs and cruise missiles). There is no need for a separate determination of the precise position of the target. The implementation of tasks in the event of the use of equipment is carried out with the help of a specialized installation, which determines the coordinates of ground targets on the Earth's surface.
The second contract of the NGA geospatial intelligence agency's NextView series was won in September 2004 by a group of companies led by GeoEye. The development of the dual-purpose satellite GeoEye-1 is carried out by a cooperation of companies: General Dynamics (platform), IBM (processing system), Kodak/ITT Industries (camera), MDA (ground segment). The total contract value amounts to $500 million, with approximately $209 million allocated for the satellite manufacturing.
Structurally, the GeoEye-1 satellite is designed as a telescope with service subsystem blocks around it and solar panel arrays on the sides. The satellite will provide simultaneous panchromatic and multispectral imaging with spatial resolutions of 0.41m and 1.64m (the predecessor OrbView-3 cannot combine both imaging modes) in a swath width of 15.2 km at an altitude of 684 km. Telescope pointing can deviate up to 600 from nadir. The daily capacity of the equipment is 700,000 km², and for global coverage, a recorder with a capacity of 1200 Gbit is installed on board. Images are transmitted to Earth via two X-band radio links at speeds of 150 and 700 Mbit/s. Radiometric resolution of images is 11 bits/pixel. The estimated operational lifespan is more than 7 years (fuel reserve for 10 years). In 2007, the satellite is planned to be placed in a morning sun-synchronous orbit (local time of equator crossing 10:30) and, according to preliminary forecasts by specialists, will operate until 2015 [11]. The external appearance of the GeoEye-1 satellite is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - GeoEye-1 Satellite
GeoEye plans to use its existing international network of 12 ground receiving stations, including three stations in Germany, Poland, and Turkey responsible for receiving images from Europe and Russia, for the operational collection and distribution of information from the GeoEye-1 satellite.
Under the restrictions of U.S. national legislation, satellite images for customers outside the U.S., including Russia, will be supplied with degraded resolution of up to 0.5 m and with a time delay of at least 24 hours.
GeoEye and DigitalGlobe operators will be able to use nearly 50% of the onboard imaging resources of super-satellites for commercial purposes. Considering that the total performance of the super-satellite system is 10 times higher than the capabilities of the current constellation, the proposal of U.S. geospatial products with submeter resolution on the global market will increase significantly.
Ultra-detailed images will find application in the development of large-scale maps and terrain plans, various thematic GIS, urban planning, construction of roads, communication lines, pipelines, and other infrastructure objects. In case of sustainable development of the consumer market for geospatial products based on ultra-detailed satellite images, millions of people such as car drivers equipped with navigation computers, users of various thematic GIS with detailed topographic bases, designers, builders, and insurers may become users.
The next logical step in the development of the remote sensing satellite market is the launch of satellites with ultra-high resolution (up to 0.25 m). Previously, images with such resolution were provided only by U.S. and Soviet military satellites.
SI and DigitalGlobe companies have applied to the licensing authority - the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) - for a license to launch a satellite with a resolution of 0.25 m (the companies already have licenses for systems with resolutions of 0.5 m and 0.4 m). It is obviously inferred that the optical-electronic systems of U.S. military reconnaissance satellites already have a higher resolution capability than 0.25 m, if commercial firms plan to use optical-electronic equipment with such high parameters and capabilities. According to analysts, the emergence of ultra-high resolution remote sensing satellites will aim to redistribute revenues between aerial imaging materials and space data markets in favor of the latter. According to estimates, the global aerial imaging data market is about $3 billion, while the space materials market is less than $500 million. Improving resolution to 0.25 m will increase the significance of commercial optical information and for military consumers.
So far, the major competitors in the remote sensing satellite market from countries such as Europe, Russia, Japan, Israel, and India have no plans to create remote sensing satellites with ultra-high resolution. Therefore, launches of such devices in the United States will further develop the market and strengthen the positions of American geospatial data product operators - super-satellite operators.
In addition to the ambiguous status of commercial satellites, the world is concerned about the uncertainty of U.S. policy regarding access for ordinary users to another vitally important satellite system - GPS. The selective access regime that restricted the accuracy of positioning for ordinary people was turned off by decree of President Clinton on May 1, 2000. However, President Bush has long been in the White House and could reintroduce this regime in order to combat "global evil."
Lockheed Martin announced the completion of the modernization of the Global Positioning System (GPS) data processing and modeling software, which will increase system accuracy by 10–15% for all GPS equipment users. The modernization was carried out under the Legacy Accuracy Improvement Initiative (L-AII) program through joint efforts of the U.S. Air Force and the National Geospatial Agency (NGA).
The improvements in GPS system parameters were achieved through the phased integration of the Air Force's standard operational control network of 6 ground stations with the NGA's monitoring station network located worldwide. The unified ground network of 17–20 stations enables monitoring of each of the 23 operational GPS satellites simultaneously by two to three stations. As a result, the time interval between the appearance of malfunctions and their elimination is reduced, the accuracy of determining the satellites' orbit parameters improves, and more accurate ephemeris and time signals are transmitted to consumers.
Before the implementation of the joint L-AII program, GPS constellation satellites were served only by six Air Force stations and could be out of radio visibility for several hours. Additional NGA stations in Eurasia are located in the United Kingdom, Bahrain, and Korea. The main control station of the combined ground station network is located at Schriever Air Force Base (Colorado).
Increasing the GPS system accuracy by 10–15% will affect all GPS receiver users worldwide, both military and civilian. No modification of consumer equipment will be required. Although some sources report that accuracy for military consumers will improve by 35%.
What do such changes in the state policy of the most powerful space power of the modern world mean for the global market? The emergence of competition in the high-resolution satellite system market has already led to a significant reduction in the cost of satellite images. The cost of panchromatic (black-and-white) satellite images with a resolution of one meter has already decreased from over $30 per square kilometer to $5 per square kilometer. Obviously, this process will accelerate further with the appearance of similar foreign systems.
Such a dramatic reduction in prices for products essential for modern industry would only be welcomed. However, the widespread use of remote sensing systems is hindered by concerns that unpredictable U.S. policy could intervene in business at the last minute. Then long-term promising projects could collapse overnight. The drop in satellite image prices will make satellite system operation less profitable. This, in turn, will complicate or make it impossible to compete against countries or blocs that cannot provide state support to the industry. On the other hand, the stakes in this area of activity are higher than ever.
There are reasons to believe that the necessity of life will push more and more states towards the development of their own remote sensing systems or participation in international projects for their development. The creation of high-resolution remote sensing satellite systems is one of the few areas where Russia can still have a significant say and become a global leader in an important and advanced area of modern high technology.
Space Programs of European Countries
In recent decades, Western European countries have begun to play an active role in space exploration and development. Western European countries from the very beginning sought to unite their scientific and technical efforts, production and test facilities, and financial capabilities, initially based on the European Space Research Organization and later within the framework of the European Space Agency (ESA) (European Space Agency). ESA was established in 1975, and its members are Belgium, United Kingdom, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, France, Germany, Switzerland, and Sweden. Austria and Norway are observers in ESA. Germany (26%) and France (21%) play the leading role in ESA financing. The agency's headquarters is located in Paris.
Cooperation in space research is considered a priority direction in the European Union (EU). In the near future, Europe may rank third in the world in terms of appropriations for space programs. ESA's main tasks include the creation and operation of space facilities on a commercial basis, and ESA members can participate in agency programs by selection and determine their share of costs for specific projects. ESA's annual budget for the 2001–2005 period is planned to be approximately 2 billion euros, and the agency employs about 1500 people.
ESA's specific projects are designed to conduct a detailed study of outer space, the Earth's atmosphere, and natural resources and the creation of communication, meteorological, and television systems, including telecommunications systems. All ESA programs have commercial applications. The successful launch of the Columbus orbital module, for example, will enable European scientists to conduct the necessary research and experiments to get firsthand knowledge of the impact of space flight on the human body. The international "Artemis" project is a telecommunications system with a large number of telecommunication channels based on the construction of a communications satellite fleet. And after it has been orbiting for five years, "Eureca" has successfully provided 15 scientific projects with scientists from around the world.
ESA's plan is to develop global navigation systems to compete with the US global positioning system. GPS. The European system of navigation satellites Galileo will have 30 satellites and provide the planet with GPS accuracy. The first of these will be sent to a geostationary orbit in 2006. These systems for advanced EGNOS and GPS will have high communication capabilities with two-way information transmission. Through increased security, low cost, and exceptional benefits, Galileo will be the central part of the European integrated satellite communication system. And for many European users, it will be their satellite navigation system. No matter the last point, though, of the European satellite communication system to work, I. themselves have a good number of advantages. in addition to the dataGridViewTextBoxColumn we had project This
On SPOT 5, the resolution of three multispectral channels (visible and near-infrared ranges) was enhanced to 10 m, and the panchromatic channel to 5 m. Images in these channels are formed by two separate CCD lines, vertically and horizontally shifted by half a pixel (2.5 m on the ground) in the focal plane. Funding for the creation of SPOT 5 was provided by CNES, SSTC, and SNSB. Additionally, Italy and Spain indirectly contributed to the satellite's development through systems developed for the European optical reconnaissance program Helios 2, which were also used on SPOT 5.
The Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) radar is used to determine precise satellite orbit parameters using signals from the International DORIS Service (IDS) network of ground beacons. The network includes approximately 60 radio beacons in 30 countries across all continents. The IDS network was initiated by CNES, the French Geodetic Research and Study Center (GRGS), and the French Space Agency for Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing (IGN). With DORIS, orbit accuracy can reach 10–20 cm when onboard data processing is performed over a 24-hour observation cycle, and accuracy can be further improved to several centimeters when data is processed on Earth. SPOT 4 and 5 are equipped with the Diode navigation system as part of DORIS, allowing real-time orbit parameter measurements. On SPOT 4, measurement accuracy is 5 m for all three axes. An upgraded version of the Diode system software developed for SPOT 5 will achieve accuracy of less than a meter in real-time mode.
On September 9, 2012, the innovative satellite SPOT-6 was launched into a sun-synchronous orbit by an Indian PSLV rocket from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre on Sriharikota Island. SPOT-6 offers higher capabilities compared to its predecessors—SPOT 4 and SPOT 5—allowing Earth observation with resolutions up to 1.5 m in panchromatic mode and up to 6 m in multispectral mode.
Spot-6 and 7 are two identical high-resolution optical Earth observation satellites. Spot-7 is scheduled for launch in 2014. The imaging swath width for SPOT 6, like its counterpart SPOT 7, is 60 km. Each of the SPOT-6 and -7 satellites can daily cover up to 3 million square kilometers.
The satellites represent a new generation of the SPOT series. The decision to create them was made by the consortium EADS Astrium in 2009 to ensure continued high-resolution imaging for years ahead (up to 2023). SPOT-6 and -7 will replace SPOT 4 and SPOT 5 satellites launched in 1998 and 2002, respectively.
The new generation SPOT satellites, together with the Pleiades satellite group, form a unified system. Four satellites—Pleiades-1/2 and SPOT 6/7—will be placed in the same orbital plane, evenly spaced by a phase angle of 90° from each other. This allows commercial and government customers to obtain imagery of the same area twice a day in a wider high-resolution band using SPOT satellites and in a detailed super high-resolution mode using Pleiades satellites.
The reception and processing system includes two main stations in Toulouse, France, and Kiruna, Sweden. These stations can receive telemetry data recorded on onboard recorders or received directly within their approximately 2500 km visibility radius, with themselves as the center. Additionally, there are 22 direct reception stations that only receive telemetry data within the visibility circle. Each station effectively manages its visibility zone according to the satellite resources assigned by SPOT Image.
On July 7, 1995, the 75th launch of the Ariane rocket successfully launched the payload of the “Helios-1A” (Helios-1A) satellite. “Helios-1A” became the 100th satellite launched into orbit by the “Ariane” series rocket and the third military satellite launched by a European launcher (the first two were British military communication satellites “Skynet-4B” and “Skynet-4C” in 1988 and 1990, respectively) [17].
“Helios-1A” is the first optical reconnaissance satellite manufactured and launched in Europe. The “Helios” program began as purely French and was particularly stimulated by the experience of the Persian Gulf War, when French forces were completely dependent on the United States for space reconnaissance information. Subsequently, France turned to ESA partners with a proposal to participate. Italy and Spain responded to this proposal by taking on 14% and 7% of the funding for the “Helios-1” project, respectively. The main developer of the “Helios” satellite was the French company “Matra” (which has since merged with the British company “Marconi Space” into the international group “Matra Marconi Space”).
The satellite, weighing 2537 kg, was structurally based on the basic block of the SPOT remote sensing satellite developed by “Aerospatiale”. The optoelectronic system, also developed by “Aerospatiale”, provides maximum Earth surface resolution up to 1 meter. (SPOT-1..3 satellites launched so far provide a resolution of up to 10 meters, albeit at a slightly higher orbit). In addition to the main developers, prominent in the production cooperation were companies “Thomson-CSF”, which supplied linear assemblies of charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensors with 4096 and 2048 elements, “Sextant Avionic” (video system), “Schlumberger Industries” (onboard tape recorders), SAGEM and SODERN (electronics).
The overall management of the “Helios” program is carried out by the Rocket and Space Management of the General Directorate for Armaments (Delegation General de I'Armament — DGA) of the French Ministry of Defense, but the National Center for Space Studies (CNES) will play a key role in managing the satellite. Requests for imaging from Italian, Spanish, and French commands will be submitted to the French airbase at Creil. There, with the participation of military representatives from Spain and Italy, an integrated imaging program will be compiled (in which each side has the right to a share corresponding to its share of project financing). The coordinated program will be transmitted daily to the CNES center in Toulouse, which manages “Helios-1A”, and from there will be transmitted to the receiving stations equipped in each participating country. The French receiving station is located in Colmar, near the borders with Germany and Switzerland, the Italian one is in Lecce, in the south of the country, and the Spanish one is in Maspalomas, in the Canary Islands. In addition, the Western European Union station in Torrejon (Spain) will also process images from “Helios” for use by WEU countries.
The total cost of the program, including the manufacture of two satellites and ground stations in three countries, is 10 billion francs (2 billion $). In the future, it is planned to create an improved satellite “Helios-2”, which will have a more advanced visible range optical system and an additional infrared observation system. It is planned to manufacture two “Helios-2” satellites, the first of which was planned for launch in 2001, but was launched on December 22, 2004, by an Ariane rocket into an orbit approximately 600 km high. According to experts, the launch of Helios 2A indicates that France is gradually, but steadily shifting the focus of its military policy from NATO to the European Union, including eliminating military-technical dependence. The main areas in which European countries are fatally dependent on America are military transport aviation, satellite reconnaissance, global navigation systems, as well as AWACS reconnaissance and targeting aviation systems [17].
Europe is only at the very beginning of a long path that will eventually eliminate dependence on NATO in these matters. However, active steps are already being taken in this direction. Last year, the European Union approved $4 billion for the purchase of military transport aircraft from Airbus. The same amount was allocated for the development of the European global navigation system "Galileo".
France currently operates two Helios satellites, which allow obtaining Earth surface images with a resolution of about 1 meter. Such images allow, for example, identifying the types of aircraft parked at an airfield. According to French military sources, the new Helios 2A satellite will have a resolution more than four times better. Images obtained with its help will not only identify the type of aircraft, but also determine what exactly is mounted on its external suspension - rockets or fuel tanks. The presence of an infrared channel will allow obtaining images not only at night, but also to determine, for example, the temperature of a tank parked at the airfield.
In accordance with intergovernmental agreements between France, Germany, and Italy, Paris will receive synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data from the SAR-Lupe and COSMO systems in exchange for similar data deliveries from the HELIOS-2 optical imaging satellites, and in the future, from PLEIADES. Official data on the spatial resolution of the HELIOS-2 optical equipment are classified, but according to statements by French military officials, this figure is "several tens of centimeters," i.e., 30–40 cm. A clear advantage of radar satellites is the ability to capture images in any weather and lighting conditions.
Germany
Germany conducts its space program within the framework of bilateral cooperation with the USA, France, and the European Space Agency (ESA) under the leadership of the Aerospace Research and Experimentation Center. Although Germany does not have its own launch vehicles, it actively participated in the development of the Western European Ariane rocket, which incorporates a third stage of German manufacture using oxygen-hydrogen.
Expenditures on space are quite significant. For example, in the late 1980s, they amounted to 502 million marks. By 2000, these expenditures are planned to increase to 27 billion marks, with 17 billion marks earmarked for joint programs with ESA and 10 billion marks for national programs.
For a long time, Germany was in the shadow of the leaders in the space information market – the USA, France, and India – modestly participating in pan-European Earth remote sensing programs. The new German satellite TerraSAR-X will make Germany a monopolist in the market for high-detail radar products previously available only to special services.
Following the successful launch of TerraSAR-X, Germany became the first country to launch a civilian satellite with radar with a spatial resolution of up to 1 meter. Today, similar radars are operated only by the US military (LACROSSE reconnaissance satellites) and Japan (IGS-1R satellite). In the race to create various types of space radars (military, civilian, dual-use), Italy, Russia, Israel, and Canada are also participating, but German products from the TerraSAR-X satellite were the first to appear on the market.
Germany was able to surpass competitor countries in creating high-detail space radars thanks to the introduction of a progressive public-private partnership scheme, combining the financial resources of the DLR space agency with private initiative and technological developments of the European aerospace giant EADS Astrium. The total cost of the satellite was €130 million, with €102 million provided by the DLR agency. The project development took 4 years. The advantages of the public-private partnership are evident when compared to the similar British TerraSAR-L satellite with L-band radar, which is being developed concurrently with the TeraSAR-X project but under the traditional scheme – under the leadership of UK government structures and ESA – and therefore will not be launched until 2008 [18].
Following Canada and the USA, Germany is developing its own Earth observation systems for both Bundeswehr and civilian users. On August 30, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and Astrium GmbH signed a contract to create the TanDEM-X radar satellite. The new satellite with a design life of 5 years is almost identical to the already manufactured first German radar apparatus TerraSAR-X, which was launched in 2007 by the "Dnepr" rocket. As a result of launching the TanDEM-X satellite in 2009, a constellation of two radar satellites will be formed in orbit, performing a joint (tandem) flight at a small distance from each other. Over three years, the tandem pair of twin radar satellites will map the entire Earth's surface (150 million square kilometers) to develop a global digital elevation model (DEM) with unprecedented accuracy and detail (height error 2 m, step 12 m). Currently, the freely available American DEM has a 90 m step and height errors of 16 m, which does not cover the entire Earth's surface.
Figure 7 - TerraSAR-X and Tandem-X Satellites
With a total cost of €85 million, the project is funded through a public-private partnership, with €56 million contributed by the DLR agency, €26 million by Astrium, and an additional €3 million expected from the sale of excess payload mass. The responsibility for using the acquired space information for scientific purposes lies with the DLR's Institute for Microwave and Radar Technology, while the commercial marketing of radar information will be handled by Infoterra GmbH, a subsidiary of Astrium, which will also manage part of the operational costs for orbiting TanDEM-X. Under the agreement between the two German organizations, the DLR is responsible for overall project management, ground segment creation, data collection, archiving, and processing, calibration, and DEM creation, as well as satellite management for 5 years. Astrium is responsible for developing, manufacturing, and launching the TanDEM-X satellite.
Germany is also creating a military radar reconnaissance system consisting of five SAR-Lupe mini-satellites. The system is designed to provide operational imaging of any area on Earth regardless of weather conditions with a maximum resolution of up to 0.7 meters. The first mini-satellite, weighing 770 kg, was launched into orbit by the Russian "Cosmos-3M" rocket from the Plesetsk cosmodrome on December 19, 2006. The foundation of this satellite system lies in France gaining access to German SAR-Lupe satellite capabilities in exchange for Germany accessing the French HELIOS-2 optical system. The creation of this satellite orbital system is Germany's first large-scale space program openly implemented for military purposes.
The SAR-Lupe system, which plans to deploy an orbital group of five satellites between 2006-2008, is intended for high-resolution radar Earth observation. The architecture of the SAR-Lupe orbital segment is shown in Figure 8 [19].
Figure 8 - Architecture of the SAR-Lupe Orbital Segment
By deciding to implement the SAR-Lupe program, Germany contributes to bridging the existing gap in global reconnaissance means at both national and European levels. Germany consistently adheres to a policy of cooperation and will integrate its national capabilities with pan-European ones. In this regard, cooperation with France is the first and most important step, and all interested countries can participate in this cooperation.
The main contractor developing SAR-Lupe is the small company OHB-System AG, headquartered in the technological park of Bremen. The company occupies one of the leading positions in the world (and the leading position in Germany) in the development of lightweight satellites, equipment for manned space vehicles, reconnaissance and monitoring technologies, as well as security provision. According to the official press release of OHB-System AG, the company's total number of employees is about 300, with 160 working at the main office. Subcontractors of the project include Alcatel Space, EADS Dornier, Saab Ericsson Space, THALES, and the German COSMOS International.
The SAR-Lupe system will consist of an orbital group including five lightweight satellites and a ground segment, providing satellite management, data collection, processing, and use of the information collected. It is expected that this orbital group of satellites will quickly obtain high-detail images of the required territory across almost the entire globe, regardless of time of day, cloud cover, or other aerosols.
The foundation of this system is France gaining access to the SAR-Lupe system in exchange for Germany accessing the French HELIOS-2 optical system. It is expected that the first elements of the system will be created by the end of 2005, when the HELIOS-2 system becomes operational [19].
Italy
The Italian space research program is based on the use of US launch vehicles ("Scout"), the European Space Launcher Development Organization ("Europa-1"), and the European Space Agency ("Ariane").
The leadership of Italy's space programs is entrusted to the Commission for the Study of Space Issues and the Aerospace Research Center. The Italian Space Agency was established in 1988. In terms of space expenditures, Italy ranks third in Western Europe after France and Germany.
Launches under Italy's space program were conducted until 1975 from the unique floating San Marco spaceport, established in 1964. Italy's first artificial satellite, "San Marco-1," was launched by a US Scout rocket in December 1964. The Italian floating launch complex "San Marco" is located in the Indian Ocean, 5.5 km off the coast of Kenya. It consists of two platforms resting on the seabed: the launch platform "San Marco" and the control platform "Santa Rita." The geographical location of the "San Marco" launch platform is extremely advantageous for launching satellites into equatorial orbits. The proximity of this launch complex to the equator allows rockets to carry heavier payloads into orbit compared to launches from other locations.
In 1992, for geodetic research, the MTCS "Space Shuttle" launched the satellite LAGEOS-2 into low Earth orbit, which was then transferred to a planned orbit of 5900 km altitude using the Italian solid-fuel stage IRIS.
For Earth remote sensing, Italy has developed the X-SAR program in collaboration with DARA (Germany) and NASA (USA) to develop SAR with synthetic aperture radar. Two launches were carried out in April and September 1994. The data obtained from these launches are the subject of study for national and international research organizations.
According to forecasts from Western agencies, including ESA, from 2004 to 2013, governments of Western European countries are expected to order 3-4 small satellites annually. Italy is almost ready for satellite manufacturing on a permanent basis. The Italian Space Agency ASI sponsors the development of two new satellite platforms: MITA for satellites weighing up to 100 kg and PRIMA for satellites weighing 300-600 kg.
In addition, Italy is developing Earth observation satellites under the COSMO-SKYMED program. This constellation of small Earth observation satellites equipped with optical and radar sensors provides daily observations of weather changes. They have high-resolution equipment and provide rapid data delivery to users.
Italian COSMO-SKYMED satellites will be part of a new Earth observation system. On June 22, 2001, the president of the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the president of the French National Center for Space Studies (CNES) signed a memorandum of cooperation in the field of Earth remote sensing, aiming to create a dual-purpose system. Specialists will rely on the experience gained from already implemented French and Italian Earth observation programs, PLEIADES (France) and COSMO-SKYMED (Italy), as well as existing ground segments for civilian and military use.
The system will include two optical satellites developed by the European corporation ASTRIUM and the Italian company ALCATEL SPACE, four radar satellites produced by ALENIA SPAZIO, and a ground segment jointly created by France and Italy.
Italy will also participate in the development of military systems. In October 2001, the chiefs of staff of Italy, France, Germany, and Spain prepared a document defining the program for creating a global European satellite observation system for defense purposes. The first stage of creating such a system, scheduled until 2010, does not require financial investments, as it involves the use of satellites planned for launch under national programs. By 2008, the system may consist of 12 such satellites: two HELIOS-2 (France, launches in 2004 and 2008), two PLEIADES (France, launch in 2008 and 2009), four COSMO/SKYMED (Italy, launches from 2007 to 2008), and four SAR-LUPE (Germany, launches from 2006 to 2008).
The cost of creating the second-generation system is estimated at €2.2 billion over 10 years starting in 2012, excluding costs for national ground segments. This more advanced system will be capable of detecting, recognizing, and identifying objects at any time of day anywhere on the globe.
In the near future, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece, and Portugal will join this project. The initiators of the program hope to attract as many European countries as possible to participate.
Alcatel Alenia Space will build the ground segment for the Italian space system Cosmo-SkyMed. The company signed a €32 million contract with the Italian Space Agency ASI, which acts as the contractor. This project is part of a broader intergovernmental agreement on cooperation and data exchange between the Italian space system Cosmo-SkyMed and the French system Helios-2. Equipment designed and manufactured by Alcatel Alenia Space in Italy will be installed at the French military base Creil in the suburbs of Paris.
Cosmo-SkyMed satellites are designed for monitoring, observation, and collection of reconnaissance data day and night, regardless of weather conditions. Cosmo-SkyMed will be used for various tasks of both military and civilian nature, including environmental monitoring, disaster prevention, and detailed topographic mapping.
The COSMO-SkyMed project reflects modern trends in the development of Earth observation satellite systems: the use of small satellite systems, the combination of radar and optical-electronic equipment (OEE), dual-use information for military and civilian (governmental and private) agencies domestically and abroad. The popular idea of creating small-sized satellites has several indisputable advantages over traditional "heavy" satellites, including relatively low cost, higher overall system reliability, and high frequency of area observation by satellite constellations compared to single large satellites.
By the late 1990s, as a result of the review of the COSMO-SkyMed project concept, it acquired the status of a dual-purpose system. The tasks of ensuring national security through space reconnaissance means received high priority after the NATO military action in Yugoslavia in 1999. As a result of military involvement in formulating system requirements, the resolution capability of equipment was improved to 0.8…1 m (initial values were 3 m for radar and 1.5 m for OEE), and the ground complex was refined to increase operational efficiency, performance, reliability, and survivability.
Italy is also a participant in the Helios optical-electronic reconnaissance program, operated on a cost-sharing basis by France (79%), Italy (14%), and Spain (7%). Italy's defense department has deployed a ground complex consisting of a receiving station in the Lecce area and a space reconnaissance center in the suburbs of Rome to process optical-electronic reconnaissance data. Clearly, the prospective COSMO SkyMed system will rely on the existing infrastructure of the Ministry of Defense's space reconnaissance system in solving military tasks.
The application area of radar reconnaissance systems for socio-economic development includes assessing the crop yield of the agricultural sector, monitoring forests, collecting data on water surface characteristics, searching for minerals, mapping the boundaries of reservoirs and snow cover, eco-monitoring, emergency response, detecting oil spills and forest fires, planning industrial and transport infrastructure development, ensuring navigation, and mapping the Earth's surface. The main consumers of information are nature conservation and geological exploration agencies, organizations responsible for emergency response, cartographic production development, as well as construction and insurance companies, oil and gas corporations, and others.
Overall, although creating the COSMO-SkyMed system will require even greater efforts, it is undoubtedly that Italy's chosen approaches (small satellite system, dual-use, and seeking partnerships with foreign countries) are beneficial, including for Russia.
